Mental development at different age periods. Short Vadim "fundamentals of family psychopedagogy" Mental processes associated with determining future professional activity

Youth is the period of life after adolescence to adulthood. The age limits of this period are quite arbitrary - from 15 years to 21-25 years. During this period of time, a person goes through the path from an insecure, inconsistent youth who pretends to be an adult, to a truly adult person. The main problem of youth is the problem of choosing life values, and central neoplasm this age becomes self-determination, including the internal position of an adult, awareness of oneself as a member of society, and understanding of one’s purpose. At the same time, youth may not give a person anything in terms of the development of reflection and spirituality, and, having lived through this period, an adult may forever remain in the psychological status of a teenager.

15 (or 14-16) years is the transitional period between adolescence and adolescence. This time falls on the 9th grade of school, when the question of future life is decided: continue studying at school, go to college or work? Essentially, society requires initial professional self-determination from a young man. He must understand his own abilities and inclinations, have an idea of ​​his future profession and specific ways to achieve professional excellence in his chosen field. This is an extremely difficult task. It becomes even more complicated in the present historical period, when the stereotypes and values ​​developed by previous generations, including ideas about the importance of education and the prestige of a particular profession, are crumbling.

At this time, the importance of one’s own values ​​increases. In connection with the development of self-awareness, the attitude towards oneself becomes more complicated. If previously teenagers judged themselves categorically, quite straightforwardly, then young men now do it more subtly. Vague, ambivalent value judgments appear such as: “I am no worse, but not better than others.” “I have a bad character, but it suits me.”

At this age, anxiety associated with self-esteem persists. Children are more likely to perceive relatively neutral situations as containing a threat to their self-image and experience great anxiety because of this.

Often youth is considered turbulent, combining it into one period with adolescence. The search for the meaning of life, for one’s place in this world, can become especially intense. New intellectual and social needs are emerging, the satisfaction of which will become possible only in the future. Sometimes this is accompanied by intrapersonal conflicts and difficulties in relationships with others.

But not everyone finds this period stressful. On the contrary, some high school students smoothly and gradually move towards a turning point in their lives, and then are relatively easily included in a new system of relationships. They are not characterized by romantic impulses, usually associated with youth; they are pleased with a calm, orderly way of life. They are more interested in generally accepted values, are more oriented towards the assessment of others, and rely on authority. They usually have a good relationship with parents, and they hardly cause any trouble for teachers. However, with such a successful course of early adolescence, there are also some disadvantages in personal development. Such young men are less independent, more passive, and sometimes more superficial in their attachments and hobbies. In general, it is believed that the searches and doubts characteristic of adolescence. Those who have gone through them are usually more independent, creative, and have more flexible thinking that allows them to make independent decisions in difficult situations, compared to those for whom the process of personality formation was easy at that time.

There are also other development options. These can be rapid, abrupt changes, which, thanks to a high level of self-regulation, are well controlled without causing sudden emotional breakdowns. Young men define their life goals early and persistently strive to achieve them. However, with high arbitrariness and self-discipline, their reflection and emotional sphere are less developed. Another development option is associated with a particularly painful search for one’s path. Such young men are not confident in themselves and do not understand themselves well. Insufficient development of reflection, lack of deep self-knowledge in this case is not compensated by high arbitrariness. Young men become impulsive, inconsistent in actions and relationships, and insufficiently responsible. They often reject the values ​​of their parents, but instead are unable to offer anything of their own; having entered adult life, they continue to rush about and remain restless for a long time.

The dynamics of development in early adolescence depend on a number of conditions. First of all, these are the features of communication with significant people, which significantly influence the process of self-determination. Already in the transition period from adolescence to adolescence, young people develop a special interest in communication with adults. In high school this trend intensifies.

With a favorable style of relationships in the family after adolescence with its stage of emancipation from adults, emotional contacts with parents are usually restored, and at a higher, conscious level. With all their desire for independence, young men need life experience and the help of their elders; family remains the place where they feel most calm and confident. Life prospects, mainly professional ones, are discussed with parents at this time. Young people can discuss their life plans with teachers and with their adult acquaintances, whose opinion is important to them. A high school student treats a close adult as an ideal. He values ​​different qualities in different people; they act as standards for him in different areas - in the field of human relations, moral standards, in different types of activities. To them he seems to try on his ideal “I” - what he wants to become and will be in adulthood.

Relationships with adults, although they become trusting, maintain a certain distance. In addition, when communicating with adults, they do not have to achieve deep self-disclosure or feel real psychological closeness. The opinions and values ​​that they receive from adults are then filtered, can be selected and tested in communication with peers - communication “as equals”.

Communication with peers is also necessary for the formation of self-determination in early youth, but it has other functions. If a high school student resorts to confidential communication with an adult mainly in problematic situations, when he himself finds it difficult to make a decision related to his plans for the future, then communication with friends remains intimate, personal, confessional. Just as in adolescence, he introduces others to his inner world - to his feelings, thoughts, interests, hobbies. WITH best friend or a friend, cases of the greatest disappointments currently experienced, relationships with peers - representatives of the opposite sex are discussed (in addition to issues of spending free time, which is also discussed with less close friends). The content of such communication is real life, not life prospects; The information transmitted to a friend is quite secret. Communication requires mutual understanding, inner closeness, and frankness. It is based on treating another as oneself, in which one’s own real “I” is revealed. It supports self-acceptance and self-respect. Youthful friendship is unique; it occupies an exceptional position among other attachments. However, the need for intimacy at this time is practically insatiable, and it is extremely difficult to satisfy it. The requirements for friendship are increasing, and its criteria are becoming more complicated. Youth is considered the privileged age of friendship, but high school students themselves consider true friendship to be rare.

The emotional intensity of friendship decreases when love appears. Youthful love involves a greater degree of intimacy than friendship, and it seems to include friendship. After, as a rule, feigned hobbies in adolescence (although even then there may be very serious exceptions), the first real love may appear.

High school students, imagining what they will be like in adulthood, expect the arrival of a deep, vivid feeling. Youthful dreams of love reflect, first of all, the need for emotional warmth, understanding, and spiritual closeness. At this time, the need for self-disclosure, human intimacy and the sensuality associated with physical maturation often do not coincide. As I.S. writes Con, the boy does not love the woman he is attracted to, and he is not attracted to the woman he loves.

The contrast between love as a high feeling and a biological sexual need is especially pronounced in boys. When falling in love, they can call the nascent attachment friendship, and at the same time they experience strong eroticism, devoid of subtle psychological content. Boys often exaggerate the physical aspects of sexuality, and some try to isolate themselves from it. Typically, in such cases, asceticism or intellectualism serves as psychological defense. Instead of learning to control the manifestations of their sensuality, they strive to completely suppress them: ascetics - because sensuality is “dirty”, and intellectuals - because it is “uninteresting”. High school students, just like teenagers, tend to imitate each other and assert themselves in the eyes of their peers with the help of real or imaginary “victories.” Not only in middle school, but also in high school, easy crushes resemble epidemics: as soon as one couple appears, everyone else immediately falls in love. Moreover, many are simultaneously attracted to the same most popular girl (or boy) in the class. The capacity for intimate youthful friendships and romantic love that emerges during this period will have an impact in future adult life. These deepest relationships will determine important aspects of personality development, moral self-determination, and who and how an adult will love.

Early youth is characterized by a focus on the future. If at the age of 15 life has not changed radically, and the older teenager remained in school, he thereby delayed for two years his entry into adulthood and, as a rule, the choice of further nougat. In this relatively short period of time, it is necessary to create a life plan - to resolve the issues of who to be (professional self-determination) and what to be (personal or moral self-determination). A life plan is not the same as a teenager's vague dreams about the future. A high school student should not just imagine his future in general terms, but be aware of ways to achieve his life goals. In the senior year, children focus on professional self-determination. It involves self-restraint, a rejection of teenage fantasies in which a child could become a representative of any, even the most attractive profession. A high school student has to navigate various professions, which is not at all easy, since the basis for attitudes towards professions is not one’s own, but someone else’s experience. This experience is usually abstract, not experienced or suffered by the child. In addition, you need to correctly assess your objective capabilities - the level of educational training, health, financial conditions of the family and, most importantly, your abilities and inclinations. Now, apparently, one of the most important is the material factor - the opportunity to earn a lot in the future. How prestigious the chosen profession or university the child plans to enroll will be depends on his level of aspirations. There is a clear trend that manifests itself throughout high school: the closer school graduation is, the more often they revise their life plans, and the lower the level of aspirations. This may be the result of a reasonable rejection of groundless hopes, but it may also be a manifestation of cowardice, fear of taking a decisive step. Self-determination, both professional and personal, becomes the central new formation of early adolescence. This is a new internal position, including awareness of oneself as a member of society, acceptance of one’s place in it. Self-determination is associated with a new perception of time - the correlation of the past and the future, the perception of the present from the point of view of the future. In childhood, time was not consciously perceived or experienced; now the time perspective is realized: the “I” embraces the past that belongs to it and rushes into the future. But the perception of time is contradictory. The feeling of the irreversibility of time is often combined with the idea that time has stopped. A high school student feels either very young, even very small, or, on the contrary, very old and has experienced everything. Only gradually is a connection established between “me as a child” and “the adult I will become”, continuity between the present and the future, which is important for personal development.

Focus on the future only has a beneficial effect on the formation of personality when there is satisfaction with the present. Under favorable development conditions, a high school student strives for the future not because he feels bad in the present, but because the future will be even better. Awareness of the time perspective and the construction of life plans require self-confidence, in your strengths and capabilities.

After 15 years, self-esteem increases again, not only compensating for the “losses” of adolescence, but also exceeding the level of self-esteem of younger schoolchildren. In Russian schools, interesting dynamics in the development of self-esteem have been identified. Typically youthful characteristics are characteristic of the self-esteem of tenth graders - it is relatively stable, high, relatively conflict-free, and adequate. Children at this time are distinguished by an optimistic view of themselves, their capabilities and are not too anxious. All this, of course, is connected with the formation of the “I-concept” and the need for self-determination.

In the senior year the situation becomes more tense. Life choices that were quite abstract last year are becoming reality. Some high school students still maintain an “optimistic” self-esteem. It is not too high; it harmoniously correlates desires, aspirations and assessment of one’s own capabilities. For others, self-esteem is high and global - it covers all aspects of life; the desired and the actually achievable are mixed. Another group of children, on the contrary, is characterized by self-doubt, experiencing the gap between aspirations and possibilities, which they are clearly aware of. Their self-esteem is low and conflicting. Due to changes in self-esteem, anxiety increases towards the end of schooling. The self-esteem of a particular high school student depends not only on the general situation, but also on individual value orientations that determine the evaluative component of the “Self-concept,” which includes not only intellectual qualities, but also sociability and the ability to maintain friendly relationships.

Despite some fluctuations in the levels of self-esteem and anxiety and the variety of options for personal development, we can talk about a general stabilization of personality during this period, which began with the formation of the “I-concept” at the border of adolescence and high school age. High school students are more accepting of themselves than teenagers; their self-esteem is generally higher. Self-regulation develops intensively, control over one’s behavior and expression of emotions increases. The mood in early adolescence becomes more stable and conscious. Children aged 16-17, regardless of temperament, look more restrained and balanced than those aged 11-15. At this time, the moral stability of the individual begins to develop. In his behavior, a high school student is increasingly guided by his own views and beliefs, which are formed on the basis of acquired knowledge and his own, albeit not very large, life experience. Knowledge about the world around him and moral standards are combined in his mind into a single picture. Thanks to this, moral self-regulation becomes more complete and meaningful. Self-determination and personality stabilization in early youth are associated with the development of a worldview. High school students write: “The difficult age (i.e., adolescence) rather denotes a period of physical change, while the crisis of adolescence signifies a series of moral or philosophical problems.”

Intellectual development, accompanied by the accumulation and systematization of knowledge about the world, and interest in the individual, reflection, turn out to be the basis on which worldviews are built in early youth. The process of learning about the world around us has its own specifics at different age periods. A teenager comes to understand reality largely “from himself,” through his experiences. A high school student, on the contrary, learning about his surroundings, returns to himself and asks ideological questions: “What do I mean in this world?” “What place do I occupy in it?” “What are my capabilities?” “What am I?” He seeks clear, definite answers and is categorical in his views and not flexible enough. No wonder they talk about youthful maximalism. It should be borne in mind that worldview problems are not solved once in a lifetime, once and for all. Subsequent turns of life will lead to a revision of youthful positions. An adult will return to these “eternal” questions, abandoning his previous decisions or strengthening his opinion, but at a different, higher level. Of course, not all high school students develop a worldview - a system of clear, stable beliefs. In this regard, it is useful to recall E. Erikson’s position on the need for ideological choice in youth. The absence of this choice, the confusion of values, does not allow the individual to find his place in the world of human relationships and does not contribute to his mental health.

Another point related to self-determination is a change in educational motivation. High school students, leading activities which are usually called educational and professional , begin to consider study as a necessary base, a prerequisite for future professional activity. They are interested mainly in those subjects that they will need in the future, and they again begin to worry about their academic performance (if they decide to continue their education). Hence the lack of attention to “unnecessary” academic disciplines, often in the humanities, and the rejection of the markedly dismissive attitude towards grades that was common among teenagers. The cognitive development of young men consists not so much in the accumulation of knowledge and skills, but in the formation of an individual style of mental activity.

In general, adolescence is a period of personality stabilization. At this time, a system of stable views on the world and one’s place in it—a worldview—is formed. The associated youthful maximalism in assessments and passion in defending one’s point of view are known. The central new formation of the period is self-determination, professional and personal.

Adolescence crisis resembles crises of 1 year (speech regulation of behavior) and 7 years (normative regulation). At 17 it happens value-semantic self-regulation of behavior. If a person learns to explain, and, therefore, regulate his actions, then the need to explain his behavior leads to the subordination of these actions to new legislative schemes.

The young man experiences a philosophical intoxication of consciousness; he finds himself plunged into doubts and thoughts that interfere with his active position. Sometimes such a state turns into value relativism (the relativity of all values).

Questions for self-control:

What cognitive changes occur during adolescence?

Describe the features of communication between young men

How does the process of developing self-awareness occur in youth?

Describe the educational and professional activities of young men as leading

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Youth is considered as a psychological age of transition to independence, a period of self-determination, acquisition of mental, ideological and civic maturity, formation of a worldview, moral consciousness and self-awareness.

There are early adolescence (from 15 to 18 years) and late adolescence (from 18 to 23 years).

At adolescence, the process of physical maturation of the individual is completed. At this age there are many critical social events: obtaining a passport, the onset of criminal liability, the possibility of marriage. At this age, the task of choosing a profession arises; many begin their working career.

In youth, the time horizon expands - the future becomes the main dimension; the personality rushes into the future, the path of life and the choice of profession are determined.

In the 9th and 11th grades, the student finds himself in a situation of “choice” - completing or continuing his education.

The social situation of development in early adolescence is the “threshold” of independent life.

Early adolescence (high school age) is characterized by extreme uneven development, both interpersonal and intra-individual.

The transition from early to late adolescence is marked by a change in the emphasis of development: the period of preliminary self-determination ends and the transition to self-realization takes place.

The 17-year-old crisis occurs at the turn of the usual school life and new adult life. If a teenager leaves school at the age of 15, then the crisis shifts to this age.

Leading activities in youth- educational, professional and professional self-determination. At this age, there is a selective attitude towards school subjects, attending preparatory courses for entering a university.

In high school, psychological readiness for self-determination is formed, which includes:

• the formation of theoretical thinking, the foundations of a scientific and civil worldview, self-awareness and developed reflection;
• development of needs (take the position of an adult, the need for communication, work, moral attitudes, holistic orientations);
• the formation of prerequisites for individuality as a result of development and awareness of one’s needs and interests.

Thinking in youth- formal-logical and formal-operational. This is abstract, theoretical, hypothetico-deductive thinking, not related to specific environmental conditions.

Interest in school and learning among high school students noticeably increases, since learning acquires a direct life meaning associated with the future. The need for independent acquisition of knowledge is increasing.

The memory capacity increases, rational methods of voluntary memorization of material are used. Mastery of complex intellectual operations of analysis and synthesis, theoretical generalization and abstraction, argumentation and proof is improved, and critical thinking is developed.

Special abilities develop, often related to the professional field (mathematical, technical, etc.). An individual’s own thoughts, feelings, and actions become the subject of his mental consideration and analysis, and the ability to distinguish contradictions between thoughts, words and actions arises. There is an opportunity to create ideals (family, society, morality).

Boys and girls are inclined to formulate broad philosophical generalizations, to theorize and put forward hypotheses.

Preliminary self-determination and the construction of life plans for the future are the central psychological new formation of adolescence.

E. Erikson considered the search for self-determination as a search for personal identity. He believed that identity crisis includes a number of confrontations:

• time perspective or a vague sense of time;
• self-confidence or shyness;
• experimenting with different roles or fixation on one role;
• sexual polarization or bisexual orientation;
• leader/follower relationships or uncertainty of authority;
• ideological conviction or confused value system.

Many studies have focused on the development and quality of the self-concept. A negative self-concept (low self-esteem and low level of aspirations, weak self-confidence) has a negative impact and leads to social passivity, loneliness, degradation, aggressiveness and crime.

The desire to know oneself as a person leads to reflection, to in-depth introspection. Self-knowledge and knowledge of others leads to setting goals for self-improvement.

In youth, value orientations are developed, a worldview is formed as a system of generalized ideas about the world as a whole, other people, and oneself.

In youth, the sphere of feelings actively develops; in general, an optimistic state of health and increased vitality are characteristic. The emotional sphere is much richer in content and subtler in the shades of experience, internal sensitivity and the ability to empathize increase.

Assessments of the environment are often categorical and straightforward.

Communication between boys and girls with adults and with parents suggests a growing democratization of relationships; the influence of parents on many important issues remains predominant.

The content of communication with adults includes problems of finding the meaning of life, knowledge of oneself, life plans and ways of their implementation, professional interests, and relationships between people. Effective interaction with close adults is possible only in conditions of cooperation based on mutual understanding and mutual support. Confidence in communication is the most important basis for a new harmony in parent-child relationships.

Communication with peers continues to play a big role in the lives of young men. At this age, there is an increase in the need for communication, an expansion of its circle, as well as a deepening and individualization of communication. Friendships are more selective, closer and deeper. However, the demands and criticality of others, uncompromisingness, and self-centeredness characteristic of age give rise to difficulties and tension in relationships.

In early adolescence, the need for solitude manifests itself more strongly than in previous age stages. In solitude, they play roles that are not available to them in real life.

The manifestation of love in adolescence usually takes the form of sympathy, infatuation, falling in love, or the form of friendship-love. In all its manifestations, first love is an important test in youth, largely influencing the development of personality.

A psychological feature of early adolescence is a focus on the future. The most important factor in personality development in early adolescence is the desire of a high school student to make life plans and comprehend the construction of a life perspective.

Life plan- a broad concept that covers the entire sphere of personal self-determination (occupation, lifestyle, level of aspirations, level of income, etc.). For high school students, their life plans are often still very vague and cannot be separated from their dreams. A high school student simply imagines himself in a wide variety of roles, weighs the degree of their attractiveness, but does not dare to finally choose something for himself and often does nothing to achieve his plans.

We can talk about life plans in the precise sense of the word only when they include not only goals, but also ways to achieve them, when a young person seeks to evaluate his own subjective and objective resources. L. S. Vygotsky considered life plans as an indicator of a person’s mastery of his inner world and as a system of adaptation to reality, connecting with them “ target» regulation of a fundamentally new type. Preliminary self-determination and the construction of life plans for the future are the central psychological new formation of adolescence. The basis for planning a subject’s own future is the existing model of the “typical life path” of a member of a given society2. This model is enshrined in culture, the value system of society, and is based on the principle of timeliness: what time should a subject meet in order to socially “be in time” and take the next step at the right time.

These guidelines are not always known to modern high school students; in addition, these guidelines themselves have undergone significant revision in recent decades. The younger generation is often left to its own devices, forced to independently develop life goals and find ways to achieve them. As a result, young men and women perceive many aspects of their future lives as problematic. If high school students of the 1960s-1970s. were looking forward to their future with optimism, then Russian high school students of the 1990s. experienced their future as a problem.

In Western psychology, the process of self-determination is referred to as the process of identity formation. E. Erickson considered the search for personal identity as a central task of growing up, although identity redefinition can also occur during other periods of life. Identity as the consciousness of the subject’s identity with himself, the continuity of his own personality in time, requires answering the questions: “What am I? What kind of person would I like to become? Who do they take me for? During the period of growing up, against the backdrop of drastic physical and mental transformations and new social expectations, it is necessary to achieve a new quality of identity, i.e. combine various properties associated with family, gender, professional roles into a consistent integrity (what kind of daughter and granddaughter, athlete and student, future doctor and future wife I am), discard those that contradict it, coordinate the internal assessment of oneself and the assessment given by others. Erikson believed that an identity crisis involves a series of confrontations:
- time perspective or vague sense of time;
- self-confidence or shyness;
- experimenting with different roles or fixation on one role;
- apprenticeship or paralysis labor activity;
- sexual polarization or bisexual orientation;
- leader/follower relationships or uncertainty of authority;
- ideological conviction or confusion of the value system.

The more successfully an individual overcomes this first identity crisis, the easier it will be for him to cope with similar experiences in the future.

There may be failures along this difficult path. Diffusion of identity(or role confusion) is characterized by the fact that a young person is unable to complete psychosocial self-determination for a more or less long time, which forces him to return to an earlier stage of development. In this case, specific difficulties may arise:
- time diffusion- a violation of the perception of time, manifested in two ways: either there is a feeling of severe time pressure, or the elongation and emptiness of time, boredom and worthlessness;
- stagnation in work- impaired performance, expressed in preoccupation with things that are useless for further development to the detriment of all other activities, a return to Oedipal jealousy and envy of brothers and sisters; inability to either continue education or choose a job;
- negative identity manifests itself, first of all, in denial, even to the point of contempt, of all proposed roles and values, orientation towards the “opposite” - a dangerous, harmful, undesirable pattern, which is persistently warned against (alcohol, drugs).

Erikson introduced the concept " psychosocial moratorium” to designate a certain period of time between adolescence and adulthood when society tolerates young people trying out various social and professional roles. Yes, the system higher education is sometimes attributed, among other things, to the role of delaying the final selection of adult roles.

Thus, building a life perspective can proceed relatively safely with an optimal combination of the past, present and future self, but it can also occur in crisis forms.

Many studies are devoted to the development and quality of the self-concept in young people, the study of the relationships between the real self and the ideal self, which is especially important during this period. It is emphasized that as one grows up, as one accumulates experience in real activities and communication, a more realistic assessment of one’s own personality develops and independence from the opinions of parents and teachers increases. A positive self-concept, a sense of self-respect and self-worth have a beneficial effect on setting long-term goals and actively striving to achieve them.

Reassessment of one's own capabilities, " youthful self-confidence“occurs quite often and sometimes pushes young people to take unjustified risks. A negative self-concept (manifestations of which are low self-esteem and low level of aspirations, weak self-confidence, fear of rejection) has the most negative impact. Reduced self-esteem and negative self-esteem are associated with social passivity, loneliness, a conformist position, degradation, aggressiveness and, finally, crime. L. S. Vygotsky assigned a central role to the development of self-awareness and personality in his youth. At this age, there is a discovery of the Self, of one’s own world of thoughts, feelings and experiences, which seem unique and original to the subject himself. The tendency to perceive one's experiences as unique has the danger of developing into isolation and isolation, based on the mistaken belief that understanding his special inner world no one can. The desire to know oneself as a person leads to reflection, to in-depth introspection: how and why one acted in certain circumstances, showed oneself smartly, restrained, or behaved cheekily, or followed the lead of another.

“I was going to go see old Spencer, my history teacher, to say goodbye before leaving...
- So you're leaving us?
- Yes, sir, it seems so.
- What did Doctor Thurmer tell you?
- Well... all sorts of things. That life is a fair game. And that we must play by the rules. He spoke well. It's all about the same thing...
- How will your parents react to this?
“How can I say... They’ll probably get angry,” I say. - After all, I’m already in my fourth school.
- Eh! - I say. It’s my habit of saying “Eh!”, partly because I don’t have enough words, and partly because I sometimes behave inappropriately for my age. I was sixteen then, and now I’m already seventeen, but sometimes I act like I’m thirteen. It looks terribly ridiculous. That's what everyone says about me, especially my father. People always think they can see right through you. I don’t care, although it makes me sad when they teach you to behave like an adult. Sometimes I act like I'm much older than my age, but people don't notice this. In general, they don’t notice a damn thing” (Sallinger J.A. The Catcher in the Rye: A Tale. Stories. Rostov n/D, 1999. P. 246-247).

Thinking about character traits, about his strengths and weaknesses, the young man begins to peer into other people, compare the characteristics of their personality and behavior with his own, look for similarities and dissimilarities. This knowledge of others and self-knowledge leads to setting goals for self-improvement. In many personal diaries of young people, the desire for self-education, self-organization, and work on oneself is expressed. (In general, youth diaries perform many important functions: recording memories that give continuity and continuity to life; emotional catharsis; replacing a communication partner or “ideal friend”; creative self-expression, etc.)

Value orientations are developed in youth(scientific-theoretical, philosophical, moral, aesthetic), in which the very essence of man is revealed. A worldview develops as a system of generalized ideas about the world as a whole, about the surrounding reality and other people and oneself, and a readiness to be guided by it in activities. A conscious “generalized, final attitude towards life” is formed (S.L. Rubinstein), which allows one to approach the problem of the meaning of human life. In youth, favorable conditions are created for the development of integrative mental education and the meaning of life. Arriving vitality, the emerging opportunities set teenagers, especially young men, to search for perspective and meaning in life. An interested, excited attitude towards the personal meaning of life appears. The sphere of feelings actively develops in youth. Focus on the future, a sense of blossoming physical and intellectual capabilities, and opening horizons create an optimistic state of health and increased vitality in young men and women. General emotional well-being becomes more even than in adolescents. Sharp affective outbursts, as a rule, become a thing of the past; but in some situations, for example, when the views of a young man, his maximalist judgments diverge from the views of his interlocutor, sharp attacks and unexpected reactions may occur.

Youth- this is a period characterized by contradictory experiences, internal dissatisfaction, anxiety, and tossing, but they are less demonstrative than in adolescence. The emotional sphere in youth becomes much richer in content and subtler in shades of experience, emotional sensitivity and the ability to empathize increase.

“Despite the fact that our reasoning for an outside listener might seem like complete nonsense - they were so unclear and one-sided - for us they were of high importance. Our souls were so well tuned in one way that the slightest touch on any string of one found an echo in the other. We found pleasure precisely in this corresponding sound of the various strings that we touched upon in conversation. It seemed to us that there were not enough words and time to express to each other all those thoughts that were asking to come out” (Tolstoy L.N. Adolescence // Selected Works. M., 1985. P. 222).

In the same time emotional sensitivity is often combined with categorical and straightforward youthful assessments of the environment, with a demonstrative denial of moral axioms, even to the point of moral skepticism. It is important to realize that this is a reflection of one’s own intellectual and moral search, the desire to critically rethink the “elementary truths” and accept them not as imposed from the outside, but as hard-won and meaningful.

The most important psychological process of adolescence is the formation of self-awareness and a stable image of one’s personality, one’s “I”.

The image of “I” (a holistic idea of ​​oneself) or self-awareness does not arise in a person immediately, but develops gradually throughout his life under the influence of numerous social influences and includes 4 components (according to V. S. Merlin):

separation of oneself from the environment, consciousness of oneself as a subject, autonomous from the environment;

awareness of one’s activity, “I” as an active subject of activity;

awareness of oneself “through another”;

social and moral self-esteem, the presence of reflection - awareness of one’s internal experience.

Self-awareness presupposes an individual’s attitude towards himself from three sides: cognitive - knowledge of himself, an idea of ​​his qualities and properties, emotional - assessment of these qualities and the associated self-love, self-respect and behavioral - practical attitude towards oneself. The image of “I” is not just awareness of one’s qualities, it is, first of all, self-determination of the individual: Who am I What am I capable of Who to be, what to be In order to self-determinate and choose the main direction of his life, a high school student must, first of all, understand himself. Therefore, it is no coincidence that youth is called the age of “discovery of one’s inner world, the discovery of the “I.” (I. S. Kon). This is a period of intense internal work, experiences, reflections, clarification of self-esteem. As one grows up, a more realistic assessment of one’s own personality appears and independence increases from the opinions of parents and teachers.

The young man must summarize everything he knows about himself, create a holistic idea (the so-called “I” concept), connect it with the past and project it into the future. There is a feeling of being special, being different from others, and sometimes a feeling of loneliness appears. (“I’m not like everyone else, other people don’t understand me”).

Self-determination is also associated with a new perception of time - the correlation of the past and the future, the perception of the present from the point of view of the future. In childhood, time was not consciously perceived or experienced; now the time perspective is realized: the “I” embraces the past that belongs to it and rushes into the future. But the perception of time is contradictory. The feeling of the irreversibility of time is often combined with the idea that time has stopped. A high school student feels either very small or, on the contrary, old and has experienced everything. Only gradually does the connection between “me as a child” and “the adult I will become” strengthen, the continuity of the present and the future, which is important for personal development. Parting with childhood is often experienced as a feeling of loss of something, the unreality of one’s own self, loneliness and misunderstanding. Due to the awareness of the irreversibility of time, the young man is faced with the problem of the finitude of his existence. It is the understanding of the inevitability of death that makes a person seriously think about the meaning of life, about his prospects, his future, about his goals. As a result, the central task of the period of growing up becomes the formation of personal identity, a sense of individual self-identity, continuity and unity. The most detailed analysis of this process is provided by the works of E. Erikson. Adolescence, according to Erikson, is built around an identity crisis, consisting of a series of social and individual personal choices, identifications and self-determinations. If a young man fails to resolve these problems, he develops an inadequate identity, the development of which can proceed along four main lines:

avoidance of psychological intimacy, avoidance of close interpersonal relationships;

blurring of the sense of time, inability to make life plans, fear of growing up and change;

erosion of productive, creative abilities, inability to mobilize one’s internal resources and focus on some main activity;

the formation of a “negative identity”, the refusal of self-determination and the choice of negative role models (asocial and antisocial groups).

Canadian psychologist J. Marsha supplemented E. Erikson's concept and identified 4 stages of identity development, which are measured by the degree of professional, religious and political self-determination of young people.

“Uncertain, fuzzy identity” is characterized by the fact that the individual has not yet developed clear beliefs, has not chosen a profession, or has not faced an identity crisis.

“Premature, premature identification” occurs if the individual has become involved in the corresponding system of relations, but did not do so independently, as a result of the crisis he experienced, but on the basis of other people’s opinions, following someone else’s example or authority.

The “moratorium” stage is characterized by the fact that the individual is in the process of a normative crisis of self-determination, choosing from numerous development options the only one that he can consider his own.

At the stage of achieved “mature identity,” the crisis is over, the individual has moved from searching for himself to practical self-realization.

At high school age, the adequacy of self-esteem increases, although this process is not unambiguous, since self-esteem often performs two different functions: it contributes to the successful performance of activities and acts as a means of psychological protection (the desire to have a positive image of the “I” often encourages one to exaggerate one’s strengths and downplay disadvantages. This psychological feature of adolescence is very important to take into account when working with athletes. Young athletes, more often than those who do not go in for sports, develop inadequately inflated self-esteem. It is associated with an overestimation of their capabilities in the conditions of rapid growth of results and early success. As a result, unjustified optimism develops , selfishness, narcissism, arrogance. A serious attitude towards training can in this case be replaced by frivolity, which will affect not only the success of sports activities, but also the formation of the personality as a whole. In such a situation, the coach needs to be especially demanding of the athlete, tactfully helping him to form correct. An objective idea of ​​yourself, of your own personality.

An extremely important component of self-awareness is self-esteem. Self-esteem is a personal holistic judgment expressed in an individual’s attitudes towards himself. It implies self-satisfaction, self-acceptance, self-esteem, a positive attitude towards oneself, the consistency of the real and ideal “I”. Since high self-esteem is associated with positive, and low self-esteem with negative emotions, the motive of self-esteem is “the personal need to maximize the experience of positive and minimize the experience of negative attitudes towards oneself.”

High self-esteem is not synonymous with arrogance. A person with high self-esteem considers himself no worse than others, believes in himself and that he can overcome his shortcomings. People with high self-esteem are more likely to become leaders and are more independent. Low self-esteem presupposes a persistent feeling of inferiority and inferiority, which has an extremely negative impact on the emotional well-being and social behavior of the individual. Young men with low self-esteem are especially vulnerable and sensitive to everything that affects their self-esteem. They react more painfully than others to criticism, laughter, reproach, to failures at work, or if they discover some kind of shortcoming in themselves. As a result, many of them are characterized by shyness, a tendency to mental isolation, and withdrawal from reality into the world of dreams. The lower a person’s level of self-esteem, the more likely it is that she suffers from loneliness. Low self-esteem is characteristic of people with deviant (deviant) behavior. But dissatisfaction with oneself and high self-criticism do not always indicate low self-esteem. The discrepancy between the real and ideal “I” is a completely normal, natural consequence of the growth of self-awareness and a necessary prerequisite for purposeful education.

There are gender differences in the area of ​​self-awareness. At the age of 14-15, girls are much more concerned about what others think about them than boys; they are more vulnerable, sensitive to criticism and ridicule. These features are confirmed by comparing the diaries of boys and girls. The content of the diary for young men is more substantive; it more broadly reflects the intellectual hobbies and interests of the authors, their practical activities; emotional experiences are described by young men more restrained. Girls are more concerned with emotional problems and spiritual intimacy. They use direct speech more often and are more eager to keep the diary secret. Diary entries are of great importance as a means of solving problems during growing up and serve as an important form of self-awareness.

A diary in adolescence performs various functions:

Capturing Memories. The desire to feel the continuity of life and life experience in the phase of its rapid changes.

Catharsis. After writing out their experiences, problems and feelings, many young people experience relief.

Replacing a partner. In many diaries there are indications that they are replacing a girlfriend or boyfriend, while at the same time idealizing them.

Self-knowledge. Each diary expresses the author's desire to come to clarity about himself and his problems. By taking notes, he is forced to clearly articulate his views. As a result, you can refer to them repeatedly and continue to think about them.

Self-education. In many diaries, especially among young men, the desire for self-improvement finds outlet; they often contain plans for organizing the day or week, and clearly formulated plans for their own behavior.

Creation. For For fewer young people, the diary is an opportunity to express their creativity.

You can get to know yourself only in communication with others, but to understand yourself, to comprehend yourself - in solitude. In early adolescence, the need for privacy is the norm. The absence of this need indicates that the personality is not developing intensively enough for his age. “To find the way to peace, you need to find the way to yourself. He who avoids himself cannot be an interlocutor.” In solitude, a high school student has the opportunity to realize the difference between his own and other norms of perception, assessment and behavior. As a result, he can determine his line of behavior, which will help him better communicate with others. On the other hand, a boy or girl has the opportunity to realize the objective and subjective changes that are taking place in them and develop a new vision of themselves, a new self-esteem.

Adults, left alone with themselves, seem to shed the burden of the roles they play in life, and, at least it seems to them, they become themselves. Young men, on the contrary, only in solitude can play out those numerous roles that are inaccessible to them in real life, and imagine themselves in those images that most appeal to them. They do this in so-called games - daydreams and daydreams.

Working on oneself is closely related to the development of the emotional-volitional sphere of boys and girls. In adolescence, the emotional world of the individual is significantly enriched, mainly due to the rapid development of higher feelings. Awareness of one’s adulthood and the new social roles associated with it, civil rights and responsibilities stimulates the development of moral feelings: a sense of duty to society and the people around them, a sense of responsibility for one’s deeds and actions. One of the central places in the emotional world of boys and girls is occupied by feelings of love and friendship. Boys and girls are able to empathize, respond to the feelings of another person, and be aware of the subtle nuances of their own emotional reactions and the experiences of other people. At the same time, they manage their emotions and moods better than teenagers, which is largely due to the further development of will. Self-regulation develops intensively, control over one’s behavior increases. At high school age, volitional qualities such as perseverance, perseverance, initiative, independence, self-control, and determination intensively develop. Particularly noteworthy is the ability of young men and women to set large, specific goals and strive to achieve them. It is in the sense of purpose that the relationship between changes in intelligence and the emotional-volitional sphere with the main new formations in the sphere of personality of high school students is most clearly manifested: professional and moral self-determination; development of consciousness and formation of a worldview.

Self-determination and personality stabilization in early youth are associated with the development of a worldview. One’s own worldview is a holistic system of views, knowledge and beliefs in one’s life philosophy, which is based on a previously acquired significant amount of knowledge and the ability for abstract theoretical thinking.

J. Piaget, N. S. Leites point to a strong tendency of the youthful style of thinking towards abstract theorizing, the creation of abstract ideas, and a passion for philosophical sentiments. High school students are characterized by the desire to rethink and practically comprehend everything around them, to assert their independence and originality, to create their own theories of the meaning of life, love, happiness, politics, etc. Youth is characterized by maximalism of judgment, a kind of egocentrism: when developing his theories, the young man behaves as if the world should obey his theories, and not theory-reality. The desire to prove their independence and originality is accompanied by typical behavioral reactions: “disdain for the advice of elders, distrust and criticism towards older generations, sometimes even open opposition. Youthful egocentrism is also the reason that young men are inattentive to their parents, self-absorbed, they see them only in certain and not always attractive roles, while parents expect warmth and understanding from their grown children.

In such a situation, the young man seeks to rely on the moral support of his peers, and this leads to a typical reaction of “increased susceptibility” to the influence of peers, which determines the uniformity of tastes, styles of behavior, and moral norms (youth fashion, jargon, subculture).

A characteristic feature of adolescence is the formation of life plans. A life plan arises only when the subject of reflection becomes not only the end result, but also the ways to achieve it. The path that a person intends to follow.

Newborn and infancy

Prenatal development, its features. Psychological characteristics of the act of birth (S. Grof). General characteristics of the newborn as a crisis period in development. Features of the transition from the prenatal period to postnatal childhood. A radical change in lifestyle and type of reflection. Morphological features of the cerebral cortex and features of the VNI

baby. Development of analyzers at the time of birth. The nature of early reactions. Unconditioned reflexes of the baby (food, defensive, orientation).

Social situation of development in infancy. The problem of forming the child's first social need - the need for communication. The “revitalization complex” as the main neoplasm of early infancy, its significance for the mental development of the child. The problem of deprivation and its consequences for the mental development of the child (R. Spitz, D. Bowlby). Direct emotional communication as the leading type of activity in infancy. Development of forms of communication and the mechanism of “advanced initiative” of an adult (M.I. Lisina). The formation of the need to communicate with peers.

Basic patterns of development of sensory processes in infancy. Features of the relationship between the development of sensory and motor skills during early and late infancy, its theoretical significance. The development of visual and auditory perception in the process of developing forms of communication between a child and an adult.

The emergence and development of the act of grasping. Developmental stages of object manipulation in infancy. Development of postural and locomotor movements. Preparatory period in speech development. The importance of emotional communication with adults (situational-personal) and communication about the subject (situational-business) for the development of a child’s speech. Features of speech understanding and the development of prerequisites for active speech (hooking, humming, babbling) for the development of active speech.

The emergence and development of memory in infancy. Factors that determine individual differences in the course of infant development. Temperament, its main characteristics. Psychological characteristics of the baby at the end of the first year of life. The crisis of one year, its causes and psychological meaning. Psychological counseling of parents taking into account age characteristics development.

Early age

Characteristics of the social situation of development at an early age. Increasing complexity of activities and forms of communication. Object-tool activity is the leading activity of a young child. Qualitative differences between the instrumental actions of a child and the instrumental actions of higher primates. Basic patterns and stages of development of object-tool actions at an early age (P.Ya. Galperin, D.B. Elkonin). The formation of the need to communicate with peers. Characteristics of the play activity of a young child. Basic patterns of development of perception in early childhood. Early forms of visual-effective thinking. Features and patterns of development of children's first generalizations and judgments. Basic patterns of child speech development. Features of the development of speech understanding. Characteristics of the characteristics of a child’s mastery of the semantic, phonemic and grammatical aspects of speech at an early age. Memory development in early childhood.

Features of the development of emotions. Initial forms of personality development - the beginning of self-knowledge and the formation of the image of “I”. The transition from “field” to volitional behavior (K. Levin). Crisis of three years. Causes, phenomenology, psychological significance and ways to resolve the crisis. Psychological counseling of parents taking into account age-related developmental characteristics.

Preschool age

General characteristics of the social situation of development of a preschool child. Features of the development of forms of communication with adults (M.I. Lisina) and with peers. Formation of a children's team and its role in the development of the child's personality. The role of the family in the development of a preschool child.

Role-playing game as a leading activity of preschool age. Game structure. The importance of play for the mental development and formation of a child’s personality. The development of perception in preschool age, its dependence on the child’s activities. The problem of sensory education, the conditions for its success. Mastery of socially developed sensory standards and the formation of perceptual actions.

Development of thinking in preschool age. The development of mediation and visual modeling as the basis for a qualitative transformation of a child’s thinking. Interaction of types of thinking. Visual-figurative thinking as the main new development of preschool age. Features of generalizations and judgments of a preschooler. Development of logical intelligence. Mastery of the concept of “preservation” as an indicator of a child’s transition to a specifically operational stage of intellectual development.

Development of speech functions. The problem of development of the regulatory function of speech. The phenomenon of speech “for oneself”. Development of contextual speech. Memory development. The problem of the formation of voluntary and mediated memory. "Parallelogram" of memory development. The ratio of involuntary and random memory. Development of attention and its features.

Personality development in preschool age. Development of self-concept, features of self-esteem. Gender-role identification in preschool age. Development of needs and motives, emergence of new social motives. Establishing a hierarchy of motives. Development of emotions. Features of the formation of moral (pride, shame, guilt), aesthetic feelings, cognitive interests. Developing empathy and becoming aware of feelings and emotions. Development of will and arbitrariness in behavior control. Stages moral development(L. Kohlberg).

The problem of psychological readiness for schooling. Main indicators of a child’s psychological readiness for school. The crisis of seven years, its causes and features of its course. Psychological counseling of parents taking into account age-related developmental characteristics.

Junior school age

Characteristics of the social situation of development in primary school age. Educational activity as a leading activity. Structure and general patterns of formation of educational activities (D.B. Elkonin). Development of learning motives. Dynamics of changes in attitudes towards learning throughout primary school age. The problem of adaptation to school.

Social life of younger schoolchildren. Features of communication with peers. Friendship in primary school age, its age-psychological characteristics, stages of development. Social status and relationships with peers.

Basic psychological neoplasms of primary school age: reflection, analysis, planning. Features of the development of perception and attention. Formation of observation skills. Memory of a primary school student, ways to increase its effectiveness. Features of the development of imagination. The problem of intellectualization of mental processes, their awareness and voluntariness.

Personality development of a primary school student. Features of the development of self-concept. Initial forms of reflection, the formation of self-esteem in connection with the development of educational activities. Development of the motivational-need and volitional sphere. Features of the assimilation of moral norms, the concept of justice and rules of behavior. Psychological counseling of parents taking into account age-related developmental characteristics.

Adolescence

The problem of the "crisis" of adolescence. Anatomical, physiological and psychological prerequisites for the transition to adolescence. The role of puberty. The role of heterochronicity of organic, sexual and social development in the emergence of adolescence. The sociohistorical nature of adolescence. The role of cultural institutions in the process of socialization of adolescents. The transition from socialization to individualization as the main characteristic of adolescence. Individual and gender differences in the pace and nature of physical, mental and social development of adolescents.

Theories of adolescence (St. Hall, E. Spranger, S. Buhler, E. Erikson, J. Piaget). Psychological characteristics of adolescence in the works of L.S. Vygotsky. Development of interests (dominants) in adolescence. The problem of a teenager's leading activity. The role of communication with peers in the mental development of a teenager. A group of peers and interaction within it as a model of relationships among adult members of society. "Partnership Code". Friendship among teenagers. The feeling of adulthood as the main psychological new formation of adolescence, a specific form of self-awareness (D.B. Elkonin). Types of adulthood, ways and conditions of its formation. The role of samples. Formation of a new type of relationship with adults.

Educational activities of adolescents. Development of cognitive motives. Selectivity of attitude towards academic subjects. Changing the nature of the relationship with the teacher. Other types of adolescent activities and their significance for mental development. Mediation, awareness and voluntariness as the main indicators of the development of cognitive processes. Development of formal operational intelligence.

Personality formation in adolescence. The task of reconstructing the body image of the self. Basic patterns of development of self-awareness. Formation of self-esteem. The level of a teenager's aspirations. The emergence of ideals as the embodiment of the level of aspirations. Development of the affective-need sphere. Increasing the need for person-oriented communication, self-affirmation and social recognition. Development of will. Formation of personality orientation. The development of moral judgment and moral beliefs during adolescence. Psychological counseling of parents taking into account age-related developmental characteristics.

Adolescence

The place of adolescence in the periodization of the holistic life cycle. The transitional nature of adolescence. The problem of leading activity in adolescence. Formation of professional orientation and preliminary professional self-determination as a leading new formation in adolescence. Psychological features of choosing a profession.

Educational activities in adolescence. Transition to self-education and self-education. Development of abstract, divergent and hypothetico-deductive thinking.

Development of communication in adolescence. Belonging to a group. Informal and formal youth associations and groups. The phenomenon of “youth subculture”, its psychological significance. Love and friendship in adolescence. Building a new type of relationship with parents.

The development of self-awareness as the achievement of personal identity (E. Erikson). Conditions for making choices in professional, ideological and interpersonal relationships. Development of the self-image. Youth diaries and their meaning. Development of motives for self-expression and self-realization based on self-knowledge of the individual. Formation of the value-semantic sphere. Development of moral consciousness. Dreams and ideals in adolescence, their psychological role for personality development. Self-determination and the construction of life plans in a time perspective as the main new formation of adolescence. Development of will and ability for self-government. Ways to develop a scientific worldview. Psychological counseling of parents taking into account age-related developmental characteristics.

Psychology of mature ages

Criteria for “mature adulthood”. Correlation of chronological, biological, psychological and social age. Developmental tasks as the basis for identifying periods of maturity. Youth as the initial stage of maturity and entry into adulthood. Youth as a “time of travel” - the search for oneself and the transition to a stable lifestyle. Creation of a “dream” and the targeted formation of a stable structure of life. Development tasks: awareness of oneself in adult status and acceptance of social responsibility, rights and responsibilities, mastering a profession and starting professional activities, finding and choosing a friend and getting married, forming a paternal and maternal position, raising children, forming an image and style of life and social circle .

The transition to middle adulthood as a normative crisis (about 30 years), caused by the discrepancy between the ideal model of a “dream” lifestyle and reality. Experiencing the feeling of loss of life and the pressure of time. Ways out of the crisis: personal and semantic restructuring, correction of life plans and lifestyle. Middle maturity (mid life). The flourishing of creative activity and professional activity. Formation of the need to transfer experience to others, mentoring. Increasing need for achievements and social recognition, special sensitivity to social assessments. Building a career.

The transition to maturity (about 40 years) as a normative crisis in development, a “turning point in life.” Awareness of the loss of youth and the reality of death. Changing the perception of time perspective. The beginning of a decrease in physical strength and capabilities. Change personal attitude and a semantic restructuring of consciousness, a change in the hierarchy of motives. Increasing need for productive self-expression. Individualization and the formation of self-sufficiency and independence.

Maturity is the pinnacle of life's journey. Collective productive activity as the leading activity of this period. Main developmental tasks: maintaining marital relationships, raising children, career achievements, developing leisure activities and hobbies, accepting and adapting to changes in the body, taking responsibility for aging parents. Features of social activity in adulthood. Loneliness in adulthood and its consequences.

The problem of the development of cognitive processes in adulthood. Factors influencing the development of intelligence in adulthood. Criticism of theories of maturity as a “psychic fossil.” Learning opportunities in adulthood. Causes of the normative crisis of 50-55 years (changes in the social situation of development and age-related restructuring of the body).

Period of aging and old age. Biological and social factors of aging. Historical variability in the assessment of old age and aging. The role of psychological and personal factors in the aging process. Age-related changes in perception, attention, memory, thinking during aging and the possibility of their compensation. Prevention of aging. Development Challenges: Adoption

and mastering new social roles, adapting to the loss of physical capabilities, summing up life and accepting it, developing a personal position regarding death, self-care activities as an opportunity to maintain autonomy and independence. Development of the need for the transfer of accumulated experience, respect and self-affirmation. Retirement. The problem of participation in labor activity in old age, its significance for maintaining normal life activity and longevity. The importance of public interests for the formation of an active old age. Life wisdom as a personal new formation, the result of resolving the crisis between personal integration and decay and despair. The influence of life history on the aging process. Features of communication and interpersonal relationships in old age. Loneliness in old age. Compensatory mechanisms during aging.