John Maxwell 21 irrefutable. John Maxwell's Laws of Leadership. Differences between plant and animal cells

Luck and success accompany the strongest leaders. Having acquired life experience, a person begins to notice a simple and natural process of dividing society into two large camps: those who give orders - leaders, and those who carry them out - subordinates. And it is quite obvious that the first group of people feels better. And it’s not even about the level of material wealth, but about awareness of one’s role in this world. Leaders are confident in their abilities, rarely doubt the correctness of their decisions and change the world around them in every possible way, while other people, on the contrary, themselves change under the influence of their environment. For some, they are passed on through their mother’s milk, and already at school such children gather groups of loyal followers around them, while others have developed their leadership skills by picking up bumps and bruises along their life path as a leader.

Many of the secrets of leadership were described in the book “The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership” by John Maxwell. The work is small in volume, but gives a lot of food for thought and argues that leadership can be learned. We bring to your attention a brief overview of the main theses and ideas presented in the work of John Maxwell.

An employee's performance is determined by his leadership abilities. If, on some abstract scale, your leadership qualities are rated at 6 points, then your labor efficiency and possible impact on the company’s life will never exceed 5 points. Only by “upgrading” can you increase your relevance and effectiveness.

2. Law of influence

True leadership is manifested solely by influencing people and their actions, and not by your perception of the situation. If, after motivating speeches and other, in your opinion, leadership actions, people do not follow you, but continue to move along their own trajectories, then you are not a leader. Only the ability to influence a person and make him change his mind about an issue makes you a leader.

3. Law of process

You cannot read a book, listen to a lecture, or talk to a guru and become a leader with the snap of your fingers or the casting of a secret spell. It takes months and even years to develop the necessary qualities, so without persistence and daily practice, you will never achieve leadership status.

4. Law of navigation

Even a child can learn to turn the steering wheel, but only a leader can build the only correct route. The essence of the law of navigation lies in careful preparation for the task and the ability to anticipate options for the development of the situation. Good preparation and full knowledge of the issue instills confidence in the hearts of people and makes them follow you. The other side of the coin is dangerous: if you lead people and lead them to a dead end after long, exhausting wanderings, then all your leadership will instantly disappear.

5. Hutton's Law

The law is named after Edward Hutton, the founder of one of the most respected financial companies in the United States, EF Hutton. At one time, his company's motto was: "When Edward Hutton speaks, people listen." People also listened to Mother Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi and continue to listen to the 14th Dalai Lama. Ask yourself a question and try to answer it honestly: “When I speak, do people listen to me or just hear me?” Your words must be the truth in the first instance. When you finish speaking, people should not wait for confirmation of your words from someone else. If your speech leads to action rather than further discussion, then you are a leader.

6. Law of solid ground

When you take a leadership position, you receive a credit of trust, both from your superiors and from the team. A couple of wrong decisions are okay, because we are all human and can make mistakes. But if, in quantitative terms, wise actions begin to give way to rash decisions, then be prepared for the fact that at one moment you will cross the point of no return. Don’t forget about this the next time you lead people on a risky business.

7. Law of respect

Let's return to our abstract scale. People whose ability is rated as a 10 will not follow a 6. These ratings are not given by someone; they are like labels that are given on their own during long-term collaboration in a team. The essence of the law is that people are ready to follow leaders who intuitively seem to us stronger and more capable than ourselves. No amount of speaking skills will make you a leader if people don't respect you.

8. Law of intuition

A leader must trust his intuition, because books on leadership may explain the theory and introduce you to the basic concepts, but in practice everything will be much more confusing. And the leader’s worst nightmare is a situation that takes him by surprise in front of his followers. The sixth sense, like leadership itself, is not given at birth - it can and should be developed.

9. Law of magnetism

It can also be called the mirror law. Take an objective look at your immediate environment - you are their average copy. Strong people attract strong people, smart people attract smart people, and so on. Anything you don’t like about your environment is most likely inherent in you. Therefore, look for negative traits in the people in your social circle and begin to correct these traits in yourself.

10. Law of communication

There is an opinion that the head helps you lead yourself in life, but to lead other people you need to use your heart. It is very difficult, and sometimes even impossible, to become a leader for people with whom you do not maintain close relationships. It is clear that Gandhi did not know all of his followers, but when it comes to the work of the company, a person will not sincerely follow you until you touch his heartstrings with your words and actions.

11. Law of the inner circle

It is a consequence of the previous law. A leader's potential is largely determined by his environment. You may sometimes have to step on the throat of your feelings and get rid of the people who are dragging you down. Surround yourself with the best people who will not only be a pleasure to work with, but also from whom you will learn new things. It is impossible to bear the burden of leadership alone, and leadership is a really big responsibility; there must always be faithful people who are ready to lend a shoulder. The inner circle can take years to form.

12. Law of Empowerment

Once you have power in your hands, you must learn to share it. Don’t be afraid to empower others; delegating some of your responsibilities is a great art. By sharing your power with your subordinates, you not only gain their trust and help them develop faster, but you also develop yourself. It is easy to lose faith in humanity, but, on the contrary, learning to trust people is very difficult.

13. Law of reproduction

Only a leader can raise a leader. Neither followers, nor subordinates, nor any official organization can make a person a leader. Only the personal intervention and mentoring of an established leader will help nurture and educate a new leader.

14. Law of complete trust

People are attracted to the leader, and the ideas and worldviews behind him are always secondary. Remember that even with the noblest motives, you will not become a leader if you cannot lead your followers to your goal. But on the other hand, you will not achieve results until you gain trust. Promises must be made confidently and boldly, but at the same time, unrealistic goals must not be set.

15. Law of modern times

You must know not only what to do and how to do it, but also when to do it. Here full awareness of the situation and the same intuition comes to the rescue. The same action performed at different points in time can have completely different consequences.

16. Law of powerful impulse

Your skills as an experienced motorist are of no use if the car is stationary. Therefore, one of the main skills of a leader is the ability to give impetus to move forward. This also includes the most important quality for a leader - dedication to the task, which can reach the point of self-sacrifice. When people see such passion and desire for results, they reluctantly begin to move in the same direction with you.

17. Law of priority

Active activity does not always indicate approaching the goal. It is much more important not to waste your energy and the energy of your followers, but to direct it in a narrow direction, which is determined by the correct prioritization. You need to periodically focus and ask yourself whether you have spread your priorities too broadly. Focus your efforts on things that bring the greatest return.

18. The Law of Sacrifice

A leader knows how to admit local defeats and periodically makes sacrifices for the sake of a higher goal. The path to success is not a fenced staircase, but a dangerous mountain path, upon entering which you must immediately prepare for possible falls. And the higher you move as a leader, the more you will have to sacrifice - you cannot protect yourself from this, you must learn to cope with it.

19. Law of Victory

Only a positive attitude is acceptable for a leader. If you yourself doubt the success of the business, then this feeling will be transmitted to the people who trusted you, strengthened many times over. You can think through options for getting around, but you should not even think about methods of withdrawal and surrender.

20. The law of spasmodic growth

In the law of reproduction, we said that only another leader can help you become a leader. The law of leapfrogging says that developing your followers into leaders will help you achieve incredible progress in your work. Movement towards the goal will go many times faster if you do not lead 100 people on your own, but turn 10 of them into independent leaders and empower them.

21. Law of Heritage

Be prepared for the fact that your leadership abilities will not be assessed during work or even after successfully achieving a goal, but only after you give way to the younger ones and step aside. People should not blindly follow only one leader, but after his departure they should be able to continue moving in a given direction.

Accept these laws, extract the truth from them, project them into your life and step by step move towards becoming a Leader with a capital L. We also recommend purchasing and reading the full version of John Maxwell's book. Good luck to you on this difficult path and believe in yourself. Remember that everyone can become a leader, but not everyone has the strength to do so!

Organelles (organelles)- these are specialized areas of the cell cytoplasm that have a specific structure and perform specific functions in the cell. Most organelles have a membrane structure. Membranes are absent in the structure of ribosomes and the cell center.

RIBOSOMES are small spherical organelles consisting of two unequal subunits and containing approximately equal amounts of protein and rRNA. Ribosomal subunits are synthesized in nucleoli and through the pores of the nuclear membrane enter the cytoplasm, where they are located either on the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum or freely. During the synthesis of proteins, they can be combined on messenger RNA into groups (polysomes) ranging from 5 to 70. Ribosomes are directly involved in the assembly of protein molecules. They are found in all types of cells.

CENTROSOME OR CELL CENTER- an organelle located near the nucleus, characteristic of most animal cells, present in some fungi, algae, mosses and ferns. This is the center of microtubule organization. The function of the centrosome is to form division poles and form spindle microtubules, with the help of which the daughter chromosomes are stretched in anaphase of meiosis and mitosis. Although the centrosome plays a critical role in cell division, it has recently been shown that it is not essential. In many living organisms (animals and some protozoa), the centrosome contains a pair of centrioles, cylindrical structures located at right angles to each other.

It was first discovered in 1888 by Theodore Boveri, who called it “a special organ of cell division.” In the vast majority of cases, only one centrosome is normally present in a cell. An abnormal increase in the number of centrosomes is characteristic of cancer cells.

In addition to participating in nuclear division, the centrosome plays an important role in the formation of flagella and cilia. The centrioles located in it act as organizing centers for the microtubules of the flagellar axonemes. In organisms lacking centrioles (for example, marsupial and basidia fungi, angiosperms), flagella do not develop.

GOLGI COMPLEX (APPARATUS)- complex network located around the core (mesh complex). In the cells of protists and plants, it is represented by individual sickle- or rod-shaped bodies - dictyosomes, canals, cisterns, which are surrounded by membranes. They sort and package incoming macromolecules . They bud off from them bubbles with substances necessary for the cell . The Golgi complex is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum channels. Its main functions: 1) concentration, dehydration and compaction of proteins, fats, polysaccharides and substances synthesized in the cell that come from outside, preparing them for use or removal from the cell; 2) the formation of lysosomes and the assembly of complex complexes of organic substances, such as glycoproteins.

LYSOSOMES- spherical small bodies (vesicles), covered with an elementary membrane and containing about 40 hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down proteins, nucleic acids, fats and carbohydrates in an acidic environment (pH 4.5-5.0). Lysosomes can also lyse aging organelles. The formation of lysosomes occurs in the Golgi complex. The lysis products enter the cytoplasm through the lysosome membrane and are included in further metabolism.

SPHEROSOMES - small bodies, initially surrounded by a biological membrane and containing specific enzymes. The function of spherosomes is to store fat. A mature spherosome is usually a droplet of fat surrounded by a biological membrane or protein shell.

Small spherical or ellipsoidal organelles surrounded by a single membrane are called microbody. The most famous of them are glyoxysomes and peroxisomes.

GLYOXYSOMES contain enzymes necessary to convert fats into carbohydrates, which occurs during seed germination. They carry out a cycle glyoxylic acids.

PEROXYSOMES found in most cell types. The functions of peroxisomes depend on the cell type. In some cases, they are directly related to photorespiration, playing an important role in metabolism glycolic acids.

PARAMURAL BODIES- special bodies that initially appear in the form of invaginations in the plasmalemma. Such invaginations can later be separated from the plasma membrane and penetrate into the cytoplasm.

PLASMIDS are circular double-stranded DNA molecules that exist in most studied cells in an autonomous state not associated with chromosomes. They are extrachromosomal factors of heredity and are intensively used in genetic engineering as molecular carriers of foreign DNA. Bacterial plasmids are the most studied.

ORGANOIDS OF CELL MOVEMENT(in animals) presented flagella And eyelashes. These are outgrowths of the cytoplasm, covered with an elementary membrane, under which there are 20 microtubules, forming 9 pairs along the periphery and 2 single ones in the center. At the base of the cilia and flagella are located basal bodies, forming microtubules of these organelles. The length of the flagella reaches 100 µm. Short (10-20 µm) numerous flagella are called cilia. Cilia and flagella serve for the movement of organisms (bacteria, protests, ciliated worms), germ cells (spermatozoa) or for the movement of particles or liquids (cilia of the ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract, oviducts, etc.).

MITOCHONDRIA- these are rod-shaped, thread-like or spherical organelles. The mitochondrial membrane consists of two membranes - outer smooth, And internal, forming outgrowths - cristae, pouch-shaped sacs, which protrude into the internal homogeneous contents of the mitochondria - matrix The collection of mitochondria in a cell is called chondrioma.

The outer membrane is permeable to inorganic ions and relatively large molecules, in particular amino acids, sucrose, etc., and regulates the entry and exit of substances into the mitochondria.

The matrix contains ribosomes, mitochondrial DNA, intermediate metabolic products, as well as numerous enzymes that are localized on the inner membrane, due to which the surface of the mitochondria sharply increases. Mitochondria are the respiratory centers of the cell and are present in all cells with aerobic respiration.

The main function of mitochondria is the production of energy. Most of the energy is immediately spent on the synthesis of ATP from ADP, some is directly used for active transport across the membrane or for heat production. Molecules of energy-rich ATP leave the mitochondria and are used to support the vital processes of the cell - absorption, excretion, various syntheses, division, etc. In this case, ATP is converted into ADP, which again enters the mitochondria.

The source of energy is the oxidation of various substances (mainly sugars). Oxidation, which occurs in a plant cell during respiration, is accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy, which is conserved in mitochondria through the formation of ATP. The addition of a phosphoric acid residue to ADP during ATP synthesis in mitochondria is called oxidative phosphorylation.

Mitochondria can divide in half (lace) or bud. In a cell, mitochondria develop under the control of the nucleus.

PLASTIDES- organelles found only in plant cells. They are divided into three groups - chloroplasts (green), chromoplasts (usually yellow or orange) and leucoplasts (colorless). The precursors of plastids are protoplastids (etioplasts)- colorless formations in dividing cells. Plastids have a similar structure and, under certain conditions, can change from one type to another. Thus, when storing potatoes and carrots in the light, leucoplasts and chromoplasts turn into chloroplasts (the vegetables turn green). The totality of all plastids in a cell is called plastidome.

Chloroplasts They are shaped like a biconvex lens and contain the green pigment chlorophyll. There are several modifications of chlorophylls - a, b, c, d. Chloroplasts are found in leaves, young shoots, and unripe fruits. The chloroplast wall is formed two membranes, there is unstructured content inside - stroma. The stroma is penetrated by a system of parallel elementary membranes, which are a continuation of the internal membrane. They are called thylakoids. In some places, the thylakoid membranes fit tightly to each other, forming stacks - grains. The grana thylactoids contain chlorophyll molecules that capture sunlight and enzymes that synthesize ATP. Enzymes for CO 2 fixation and the synthesis of organic compounds using ATP energy are localized in the stroma. Thus, the light phase of photosynthesis occurs in the grana, and the dark phase occurs in the stroma. The stroma of chloroplasts has an autonomous system for the synthesis of proteins (DNA, RNA and ribosomes). The main functions of chloroplasts are photosynthesis and the synthesis of specific proteins. In algae, the chloroplast is often one, large, specific and is called chromatophore.

Leukoplasts - colorless plastids, most often contained in uncolored parts of plants - stems, roots, bulbs, etc. Their shape can be different and inconsistent, internal membranes are poorly developed. Leucoplasts can synthesize and accumulate proteins, fats and polysaccharides (starch). Leukoplasts that accumulate starch called amyloplasts that accumulate proteins - proteoplasts, fatty oils - oleoplasts.

Chromoplasts- plastids containing plant pigments (except green), giving color to flowers, fruits, stems and other parts of plants due to the accumulation of carotenoids in them. Chromoplasts are the final stage in plastid development. They are smaller than chloroplasts, have a non-lenticular shape, and usually lack an internal membrane system. Most often, chloroplasts transform into chromoplasts during the autumn yellowing of leaves or ripening of fruits. The process of converting other plastids into chromoplasts is irreversible.

NUCLEUS OF A PLANT CELL is an essential component of all plant eukaryotic cells. Some cells have two or more nuclei (fungi, etc.). The shape and size of the nucleus depend on the shape and size of the cell and the function it performs. In round and polygonal cells it is usually spherical, in elongated cells it is rod-shaped or oval.

In terms of chemical composition, the nucleus differs from other components of the cell in its high content of DNA (15-30%) and RNA (12%); 99 % The cell's DNA is concentrated in the nucleus, where it, together with proteins, forms complexes - deoxyribonucleoproteins(DNP).

The kernel performs two main functions:

♦ storage and reproduction of hereditary information;

♦ regulation of metabolic processes occurring in the cell.

During the process of cell division, the structure of the nucleus undergoes significant changes.
IN interphase nucleus distinguish between the nuclear envelope, nuclear sap, chromatin and nucleoli.

Nuclear envelope (karyolemma) It is represented by two biological membranes, between which there is a perinuclear space. The outer nuclear membrane is directly connected to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum channels. Ribosomes are located on the outer membrane, the inner membrane is smooth. The nuclear envelope is penetrated by numerous pores through which the exchange of substances occurs between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The main function of the nuclear envelope is the regulation of metabolism. In addition, it performs a protective function.

Nuclear juice (karyoplasm)- this is a homogeneous mass that fills the space between the structures of the nucleus (chromatin and nucleoli). It consists of water, proteins (enzymes), nucleotides, amino acids and different kinds RNA (i-RNA, t-RNA, r-RNA). Nuclear sap interacts between nuclear structures and exchanges with the cytoplasm of the cell.

Chromatin is a deoxyribonucleoprotein (DNP), visible under a light microscope in the form of thin threads and granules. This is what despiralized chromosomes look like in interphase. During the process of mitosis, chromatin by spiralization forms highly visible (especially in metaphase) intensely stained structures - chromosomes. The main function of chromosomes is to store, reproduce and transmit genetic information in the cell.

Metaphase chromosome consists of two longitudinal threads of DNP - chromatid, connected to each other in the area of ​​the primary constriction - centromeres, to which the threads are attached fission spindles. The centromere divides the chromosome body into two shoulder Depending on the location of the primary constriction, the following types of chromosomes are distinguished: metacentric(equal arms), in which the centromere is located in the middle, and the arms are approximately equal in length; submetacentric(unequal arms), when the centromere is displaced from the middle of the chromosome, and the arms are of unequal length; acrocentric(rod-shaped), when the centromere is shifted to the end of the chromosome and one arm is very short. Some chromosomes may have secondary constrictions, the area separating the chromosome from the body, called satellite.

Nucleoli usually have a spherical shape, are not surrounded by a membrane and are in contact with the nuclear juice. They contain proteins and rRNA in equal proportions. Nucleoli are unstable formations; they dissolve at the beginning of cell division and are restored after its completion. Their formation is associated with secondary constrictions (nucleolar organizers) satellite chromosomes . In the area of ​​secondary constrictions, genes encoding the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and proteins. In the nucleoli, ribosomes are formed, which then enter the cytoplasm through pores in the nuclear envelope.

DIFFERENCES IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS:

♦ animal cells do not have a cell wall (covered only with an elementary membrane), plant cells have a cell wall (there is a membrane on top of the membrane: in plants its basis is the polysaccharide cellulose, in fungi the wall consists mainly of the nitrogen-containing polysaccharide chitin). Symplastic metabolism occurs in plant cells through plasmodesmata.

♦ an animal cell is a heterotroph, it does not contain plastids, a plant cell is an autotroph, it has plastids;

♦ an animal cell has centrioles, a plant cell does not;

♦ in an animal cell there is no central vacuole, in a plant cell it is present and contains cell sap;

the reserve nutrient of the animal cell and in most fungi is glycogen,
in plants it is the polysaccharide starch.

CELL DIVISION. In multicellular organisms, growth and development occur as a result of the growth and division of the cells that make up its body. There are 4 ways of cell division: amitosis, endomitosis, mitosis and meiosis.

AMITOSIS, or direct division - a method in which the nucleolus is first divided, then the nucleus is simply divided into two by a constriction in the form of the number 8, followed by a complete division of the protoplast and the entire cell into two. In this case, the nuclear substance is not always evenly distributed between daughter cells. Amitosis occurs in cells of aging tissues or patients, so division is pathological. Discovered by Nikolai Ivanovich Zheleznov in 1840.

ENDOMITOSIS represents intracellular division. Reduplication of chromosomes occurs in the cell, but the chromosomes do not diverge to the poles. Endomitosis is often the cause of polyploidy.

MITOSIS, or karyokinesis, is a widespread, universal method of division. Vegetative cells (somatic) of all plants, animals and humans are divided in this way. Mitotic division is a complex process through which cellular material is distributed equally between daughter cells. Discovered in 1874 by Ivan Dorofeevich Chistyakov.

Mitosis is one of the parts of the cell cycle, but since it is quite complex, four phases were distinguished in its composition: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Chromosome duplication occurs during interphase. As a result of this, chromosomes enter mitosis already doubled, resembling the letter X(identical copies of the maternal chromosome are connected to each other at the centromere). The duration of mitosis is 0.5-3 hours.

IN prophase The volume of the nucleus begins to increase, chromosomes become visible due to chromatin spiralization. By the end of prophase, it is noticeable that each chromosome consists of two chromatids connected at the centromere. The nucleolus gradually disappears, the nuclear membrane is destroyed, and a fission spindle is formed.

Metaphase characterized by maximum spiralization of chromosomes. They are arranged at the equator of the cell, forming metaphase plate. At the same time, it is clearly visible that each chromosome consists of two chromatids (2n2хр), therefore the counting and study of chromosomes is carried out precisely during this period.

IN anaphase the connection in the centromere region is destroyed, the chromosomes divide and move towards the division poles.

IN telophase the chromosomes gathered at the poles despiral and become poorly visible. Around them, a nuclear envelope is formed from the membrane structures of the cytoplasm. The nucleoli are restored. At the same time, the division of the cytoplasm occurs in animal cells - by constriction, and in plant cells - by constructing a membrane, starting from the middle of the cell (cytokinesis). The resulting daughter cells have a diploid set of chromosomes, each of which consists of one chromatid (2n1хр).

Biological significance of mitosis consists in the precise distribution of chromosomes and the genetic information contained in them between daughter cells, which ensures the constancy of the karyotype and genetic continuity in numerous cell generations. Mitosis determines the most important phenomena of life: growth, development and restoration of tissues and organs of the body.

MEIOSIS(reduction division). Opened in 1885 by Vladimir Ivanovich Belyaev. Sex cells (gametes) undergo meiosis. The whole process consists of two nuclear divisions, quickly following each other. The most difficult division is the first one, during which chromosome reduction occurs. The second division proceeds as a typical mitotic division. As a result of meiosis, 4 haploid cells are formed, representing in some cases spores (in most lower and all higher archegonial plants), and in others - gametes.

Prophase of meiosis I is long and breaks down into 5 stages - leptonema, zygonema, pachinema diplonema, diakinesis. Gradual spiralization of chromatin occurs and visible chromosomes are formed. Homologous chromosomes come together in pairs, first in the centromere region, and then along the entire length, forming one common structure consisting of two chromosomes and four chromatids. They are called bivalents or notebooks(bi - two, tetra - four). The close contact of two homologous chromosomes is called conjugation. During the process of conjugation, an exchange of sections can occur between some chromatids of homologous chromosomes - crossing over, leading to recombination of genetic material. By the end of prophase, the nuclear envelope and nucleoli dissolve, and an achromatic spindle is formed. Conjugated chromosomes first separate at the centromere region, remaining connected at the arms, and form decussations (chiasmata). The divergence of chromatids gradually increases, and the crosshairs move towards their ends. The content of genetic material during this period is 2n2хр.

In metaphase of meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are arranged in pairs in the equatorial plane of the cell. At this moment, their spiralization reaches its maximum. The content of genetic material does not change (2n2хр).

In anaphase of meiosis I, homologous chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, move to opposite poles of the cell. Consequently, from each pair of homologous chromosomes, only one gets into the daughter cell - the number of chromosomes is halved (reduction occurs). The content of genetic material becomes 1n2xp at each pole.

In telophase, the formation of nuclei and the division of the cytoplasm occur - two daughter cells are formed. Each cell contains a haploid set of chromosomes consisting of two chromatids (1n2хр).

Interkinesis is a transitional phase between divisions.

Meiosis II proceeds as mitosis. In metaphase, chromosomes are located in the equatorial plane of the cell. There are no changes in genetic material (1n2хр). In anaphase of meiosis II, the chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles of the cell and the content of genetic material at each pole becomes 1n1хр. In telophase, 4 haploid cells (1n1хр) are formed.

Reduction division is important biological significance. 1) Thanks to the reduction of chromosomes, species are preserved, since gametes with a haploid number of chromosomes after fusion restore the original number of chromosomes characteristic of a given species. 2) Provides the possibility of recombination of chromosomes and genes during the sexual process. This ensures the appearance of diverse and different-quality offspring during sexual reproduction of organisms. 3) Thanks to meiosis, an alternation of nuclear phases occurs - diploid and haploid, which, in turn, determines the alternation of asexual (sporophyte) and sexual (gametophyte) generations in their development cycle. The alternation of generations plays a decisive role in the preservation of species formed as a result of evolution.

Mitosis. I-III - prophase; IV - metaphase;

V-VI - anaphase; VII-VIII - telophase.

Meiosis. Prophase I (1-5), 6 - metaphase I;
7 - anaphase I; 8 - telophase I; 9 - interkinesis;
10 - metaphase II; 11 - anaphase II; 12 - telophase II.

One of the two homologous chromosomes is shaded, the other is white. White exchange
and shaded areas of chromosomes are the result of crossing over.
Small white circles are centromeres, a large circle is the outline of the nucleus.
In metaphase and anaphase of both divisions, the nuclear membrane disappears. It appears again in telophase. In metaphase and anaphase of both divisions, arrows indicate the direction of stretching and movement of chromosomes using spindle threads.

Crystals and accumulations of mineral salts in cells:

1 - cystolitis in the epidermal cell of a fig leaf, 2 - raphids in Tradescantia leaf cells, 3 - Druze in the cells of the palisade tissue of the fig leaf, 4 - druses and single crystals in begonia petiole cells, 5 - single crystals in the epidermal cells of the scales of the onion bulb, 6 - accumulation of small crystals(“crystalline sand”) in the mesophyll cells of a belladonna leaf

Cellulose (fiber). It, like starch, is a polymer of glucose, however, due to differences in the structure of the molecular chain, cellulose is not broken down in the human intestine.

Pectin is a natural polymer of D - galacturonic acid

Hemicellulose– a cell wall polysaccharide consisting of polymers of glucose and hexose. G. differs from cellulose in its better solubility in alkali solutions and its ability to be easily hydrolyzed by boiling dilutions. mineral compounds.

The lignin molecule consists of polymerization products of aromatic alcohols.

All protozoa are unicellular or multicellular and do not have highly organized tissues.

Mononucleotide adenosine triphosphoric acid, adenosine triphosphate, consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine, the five-carbon monosaccharide ribose and three phosphoric acid residues, which are interconnected by high-energy bonds

Centrioles are involved in the formation of cytoplasmic microtubules during cell division and in the regulation of the formation of the mitotic spindle. There are no centrioles in plant cells, and the mitotic spindle is formed there in a different way.

Archegonial plants (Archegoniatae), plants that have a female reproductive organ in the form of an archegonium. A. r. were first identified as a separate type in 1876 by the Russian botanist I.N. Gorozhankin, who included gymnosperms, bryophytes and pteridophytes, in contrast to angiosperms, which do not have an archegonium, but have a complex female organ - the pistil. Most botanists classify these groups into three separate types: bryophytes, pteridophytes and gymnosperms.

John Maxwell - 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership

PREFACE

You will love THIS BOOK—whether it's your first or your fiftieth in your leadership book collection—because you'll be able to immediately apply the life-changing principles and procedures outlined here to your personal life and business. In this book you will not find any theory that would be the fruit of solitary reflection - it contains unchanging and eternal principles of leadership, confirmed by the experience of John Maxwell himself, as well as many of the people about whom he writes.

The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership is a powerful and decisive statement of timeless laws that if you want to become a great leader, you simply need to follow - at home, at work, in church - wherever you are called to lead people.

In each chapter, John reveals the essence of another profound law of leadership, showing through the example of the successes and failures of others how you can apply this law in your life. And you can actually use each of the laws given here. If you are a diligent student, you can study All these laws and put them into practice.

What priceless treasures such an authority on leadership as John Maxwell offers us by bringing together everything he knows about leadership and presenting this information in such an accessible form! Once you begin to apply these laws of leadership, you will notice that many leaders strictly follow (or violate) E. F. Hutton's Law, the Law of Powerful Impulse, and all the rest.

I wholeheartedly recommend The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership. The book is useful and easy to read, while maintaining undeniable depth and clarity. It is filled with hope, purpose, inspiration and concrete procedures. This moral work contains precise, clearly defined instructions that provide the diligent student with the necessary tools to fulfill the role of leader.

If you are new to the principles of leadership and are new to it, this book will serve as a springboard for you to begin your leadership career. If you are an experienced leader with a top-notch track record, it will make you an even better leader. This is a good, very good book.

John Maxwell wrote an amazingly motivating book, The 21 Laws of Leadership. These laws were not invented by him, they were rediscovered (these laws were known to the first US presidents and the people who created Coca-Cola, General Electric and other large and successful corporations).

Through his twenty-odd years of experience, John Maxwell rediscovered these laws and put them into practice. These laws helped John grow into a truly amazing leader. Although his companies are small (only 4 with about 150 employees each), leaders followed him and joined his team who were impressed with the work John had done and his desire to grow and develop as a great leader.

John Maxwell's first law of leadership is the law of the ceiling.

Each person, with his perseverance, his inspiration, his ingenuity, can achieve amazing success, but there is a big BUT. If he does not grow as a leader, then his business will choke, will be absorbed by competitors, the business will be surpassed by competitors and trampled underfoot. WHY will this happen? Yes, the leader will simply mark time while others raise followers, leaders, leaders creating leaders. Each person has his own CEILING, if this ceiling is high from birth, then the person may not move it with his shoulders, but if it is low, then he needs to develop. John Maxwell, in The 21 Laws of Leadership, illustrates the law of ceilings by saying, “The higher you want to climb, the more leadership you need. The more impact you want to have, the greater your impact should be. The effectiveness of the individual and the organization is proportional to the strength of the leadership."

John Maxwell's second law of leadership is the law of influence.

John Maxwell writes that if a person is not able to exert any influence, then he is not able to unite people and lead them. John writes that many people think that a successful entrepreneur and a leader are identical concepts, but Maxwell says this is not so. People are ready to buy from entrepreneurs, but they will not follow them or will do so for their own reasons due to a hopeless situation.

John Maxwell's third law of leadership is the law of process.

The path to success, writes John Maxwell, is a lifelong path; leaders along this path do not become overnight, but improve their leadership skills over many years and even decades: “Becoming a leader is very similar to successfully investing capital in the stock market. If you hope to make a fortune in a day, then you have no chance of succeeding... When a person acts in a disciplined, consistent and systematic manner, then he is ready no matter what his goal is.”

John Maxwell's fourth law of leadership is the law of navigation.

Everyone can turn the steering wheel, but only a leader can lead in the right way: “A leader is a person who sees more than others see, who sees further than others see, and who notices before others notice.” To effectively pave the way to a goal, it is necessary to balance optimism, realism, intuition, planning, faith, and various facts. If a leader cannot lead through rough waters, he will sink the ship.
To comply with the law of navigation, you need to: think through the entire procedure in advance, localize and systematize goals, adjust priorities in a targeted manner, identify key personnel, reserve time for approval of the plan, actively begin implementation, tune in to expected problems, naturally notice and celebrate successes, daily control your plan.

John Maxwell's fifth law of leadership is the law of attention.

You can be a director, but not be a leader, or you can be a simple employee who has more power over the team than the director. Why is that? The team's attention is focused on one person - the real leader. People respect the leader, his position, his actions; the deeds he accomplished in the name of the people. In 1994, Mother Teresa spoke to a large audience (there was also the Washington establishment, officials (who had given their elderly parents to nursing homes); feminists who had committed numerous abortions to build a career, Mother Teresa was listened to by everyone and there was not a single one left whom she did not hurt with his speech, even the President and First Lady of the United States were silent and could not say a single word against Mother Teresa's diatribe. Why? Because when a real leader speaks, people listen, regardless of whether they agree with what he states or disagree.

John Maxwell's Sixth Law of Leadership - Trust is the foundation of leadership.

If people trust you, then they will support your initiative without even going into details, but if you violated this law and tried to manipulate trust, then the followers will be disappointed in YOU as a leader, in YOUR IDEA and they will turn away from you and will look for another leader. Building trusting relationships is one of the leader’s priorities. John Maxwell, in his book The 21 Laws of Leadership, writes: “Trust is the foundation of leadership. To build self-confidence, a leader must have the following qualities: competence, the ability to establish and maintain relationships with others and character.”

John Maxwell's seventh law of leadership is the law of respect.

This law goes like this: people follow only those leaders who are stronger than themselves. However, a leader must know, must know what he knows, and must be able to make it absolutely clear to all concerned what he knows. People feel respect for strong leaders, not envy at all, and most importantly, respect is most tested during those periods when the leader makes some major change in his organization.

John Maxwell's Eighth Law of Leadership - Leaders see the world through the eyes of leaders.

It is difficult to see all the possible situations that can occur as a result of the wrong choice of path, but a leader very often chooses a path intuitively, he looks at the world through the eyes of the leader and feels where he needs to turn so that the path leads him to his intended goal. The leader must read the situation and instinctively know which course of action to take. At the same time, leaders who want to succeed make the most of every asset and every resource they have for the benefit of their organization: they know how to read the current situation, trends, resources, their people, themselves.

John Maxwell's ninth law of leadership is the law of magnetism.

This law goes like this: whoever is next to you is not determined by what you want to have. It is defined by who you are. In most situations, you attract people who have the same qualities as you. This is the law of magnetism: you attract people like you. If a leader believes that the people they attract could be better, then it's time for you to start improving yourself.

John Maxwell's Tenth Law of Leadership is the Law of Connection.

Leaders touch hearts before they ask for hands. Leaders speak to our hearts before they speak to our minds. The stronger the relationship and bond between them as individuals, the more likely it is that the follower will want to help the leader. A leader's job is to initiate connections with the people around him, because people don't care how much you know until they know how much you care.

John Maxwell's eleventh law of leadership is the law of the inner circle.

A leader's potential is determined by those closest to him. For any leader, the greatest value comes from those who are able to lift up other leaders. The result is multi-generational leadership.

John Maxwell's Twelfth Law of Leadership is the Law of Empowerment.

Only confident leaders give power to others. People's ability to achieve results is determined by their leaders' ability to delegate authority. The key to empowering others is to have great faith in people.

John Maxwell's Thirteenth Law of Leadership is the Law of Reproduction.

In order to raise a leader, you need a leader. People cannot give to others what they do not have themselves. Followers simply cannot produce leaders. Every effective leadership coach makes developing leaders a high priority in their life. He knows that the potential of his organization depends on the continued growth of the leaders who work within it. The more leaders there are and the stronger they are, the higher his personal chances of success.

John Maxwell's fourteenth law of leadership is the law of total trust.

People are attracted to the leader and only then to the big idea. A leader finds a great dream and then finds people. People find a leader and then his dream. If people once believed in someone, then they are ready to give a chance to this person’s point of view, his thoughts and insights. People want to walk alongside those of whom they have a high opinion.

John Maxwell's fifteenth law of leadership is the law of victory.

Victorious leaders feel that the alternative to victory is absolutely unacceptable, so they carefully consider the path to victory and then pursue the chosen path using all the resources at their disposal. Leaders who put the law of victory into practice are convinced that there is no fallback option. This is what maintains their will to fight.

John Maxwell's sixteenth law of leadership is the law of powerful impulse.

Thanks to impulse, others think that their leaders are simply geniuses. Supporters stop seeing the past shortcomings of their current idols. They forget about the mistakes that leaders previously made. Impulse changes the appearance of leaders in the eyes of people. With enough drive to action, almost any change becomes possible.

John Maxwell's seventeenth law of leadership is the law of priority.

As a leader, you should spend the bulk of your time working in the areas where you are strongest. If someone in your organization can do this work with 80% efficiency compared to you, give the job to him. If someone can potentially be brought to the specified level, then this person should be developed so that in the future it is he who will do this work.

John Maxwell's eighteenth law of leadership is the law of sacrifice.

The Law of Sacrifice states that you must retreat in order to move forward. Sacrifice is a constant element of leadership. It is an ongoing process rather than a one-time fee. Talk to any leader and you will find that they have made repeated sacrifices. Typically, the higher a given leader has risen, the greater sacrifices he has made and continues to make. Effective leaders sacrifice a lot to devote themselves to what they believe is important.

John Maxwell's nineteenth law of leadership is the law of timing.

A leader who takes the wrong action at the wrong time is likely to fail and experience all its negative consequences. When leaders take the right actions at the right time, success is almost inevitable. Understanding the situation and knowing what to do is not enough to succeed in leadership. Only the right action taken at the right time will bring success. There is a high price to pay for any other behavior. This is the law of timeliness.

John Maxwell's twentieth law of leadership is the law of leapfrogging.

To simply increase growth, lead followers; to multiply it, lead leaders. Leaders who develop followers and adherents ensure that their organization grows by just one person at a time. But those leaders who raise leaders multiply the rate of growth many times over, because with each leader they raise, they receive into their ranks a tayuke and all his champions.

John Maxwell's Twenty-First Law of Leadership - The lasting value of a leader is measured by continuity.

Max Dupre, author of Leadership is an Art, stated, “Providing continuity is one of the key responsibilities of a leader.” However, of all the laws of leadership, the Law of Inheritance appears to be the one followed by the fewest leaders. Achievements come to those who are able to create and actually do great things on their own, without any outside help. Success comes when a person empowers his followers to do great things with him. Significance comes when he develops leaders who are willing to do great things for him. But a true legacy is created only if a person knows how to bring his organization to a state where great things are done there without him.
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John Maxwell's 21 Laws of Leadership

John Maxwell, a leading leadership expert and founder of IN JOY, an organization that helps maximize personal and leadership potential, in his book The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership, talks about the laws that form the foundation of leadership in any field where you are called to lead people. yourself. Maxwell says there are four principles to always keep in mind when reading about these laws.

These laws can be learned. Some laws are easier to understand and apply than others, but you can master each one.

These laws can be considered one by one. Each law complements all the others, but you do not necessarily need to master one to learn another.

These laws have consequences. Apply these laws and people will follow you. Violate or ignore them and you will not be able to lead others.

These laws form the foundation of leadership. Having studied these principles, you must put them into practice and apply them to your life.

And here are the laws of leadership themselves, formulated by John Maxwell:

1. LAW OF THE CEILING. Leadership ability determines a person's level of effectiveness.

Brothers Dick and Maurice came as close as possible to realizing the American Dream, but never achieved their plans. Instead, a man named Ray did it to the company they founded. This happened because none of the brothers knew the law of the ceiling.

2.LAW OF INFLUENCE. The true measure of leadership is influence—no more and no less.

Her husband had it all: wealth, privilege, high position and royal title. But instead, Princess Diana chose a completely different world. Why? She understood the law of influence.

3.LAW OF PROCESS. A leader becomes one day at a time, not one day.

Theodore Roosevelt helped create a world power, received the Nobel Peace Prize, and became President of the United States. But today you wouldn't even know his name if he didn't know the law of process.

4. LAW OF NAVIGATION. Anyone can turn the ship's wheel, but it takes a leader to chart the course.

Using a trusty compass, Scott led his team of adventurers to the ends of the earth - and to an inglorious death. They would have survived if only he, their leader, had known the law of navigation.

5.LAW E. F. HATTON. When a true leader speaks, people listen.

Young John walked into his first church council meeting thinking he was in charge. He soon discovered who the real leader was, and along the way he learned E. F. Hutton's Law.

6. THE LAW OF SOLID SOIL. Trust is the foundation of leadership.

If Robert McNamara had known the law of a solid foundation, then the Vietnam War and everything that happened in the country because of it could have gone completely differently.

7.LAW OF RESPECT. People naturally follow leaders who are stronger than themselves.

Every misfortune imaginable befell her from all sides, yet thousands and thousands of people called her their leader. Why? Yes, because they could not escape the rule of the law of respect.

8. LAW OF INTUITION. Leaders evaluate everything through the lens of leadership.

How was it that time after time Norman Schwarzkopf was able to grasp the essence of problems while the leaders around him remained blind? The answer comes from the factor that separates great leaders from merely good ones—the law of intuition.

9. LAW OF MAGNETISM. You attract people like you.

Why are the Dallas Cowboys, once reverently known as "All America's Team", so often reviled and fiercely debated? This is completely explained by the law of magnetism.

10. LAW OF COMMUNICATION. Leaders touch hearts before they ask for hands.

Elizabeth Dole understood it perfectly. If her husband Bob had done the same, he could well have become the forty-third President of the United States. We are talking about the law of connection.

11. LAW OF THE INNER CIRCLE. A leader's potential is determined by those closest to him.

John was already using time management to his fullest, but he wanted to do more. His priorities were also pushed to the limit, but there were only twenty-four hours in a day! How was John able to move to a new, higher level? He put the law of the inner circle into practice.

12. LAW OF EMPOWERMENT. Only confident leaders give power to others.

Henry Ford is considered an icon of American business for the revolution he brought about in the automobile industry. For what reason did he suddenly begin to stumble so seriously that his son began to fear that the automobile company Ford not completely ruined? Ford Sr. became a prisoner of the law of empowerment.

13. LAW OF REPRODUCTION. To develop a leader, you need a leader.

What do the various top coaches in the National Football League have in common? You can trace the roots of their leadership abilities and end up with a handful of the same mentors. The same holds true for hundreds of top executives at major companies. More than 80% of all leaders are the result of the law of reproduction.

14. LAW OF COMPLETE TRUST. People are attracted to the leader and only then to the big idea.

When Judy Estrim first started the company, it took her six months to raise money. The second time it took her about six minutes. What caused this difference? The law of complete trust is to blame.

15. LAW OF VICTORY. Leaders find a way for their team to win.

What saved England from the blitzkrieg, forced the end of apartheid in South Africa and repeatedly provided the basketball team Chicago Bulls winning an NBA championship? In all three cases the answer is the same: their leaders lived by the law of victory.

16. THE LAW OF A POWERFUL IMPUST. Impulse is a leader's best friend.

Jaime Escalante is called best teacher America. But his teaching abilities are only half the story. Success came to him and to Garfield High School thanks to the law of powerful impulse.

17. LAW OF PRIORITY. Leaders understand that being proactive does not necessarily mean moving toward a goal.

Jack Welch took over the leadership of a company that had already reached great heights, and was able, like a rocket, to take it even higher into the stratosphere. What did he use as a launching pad? Of course, the law of priority.

18. LAW OF SACRIFICE. A leader must be able to step back in order to move forward.

He was one of America's most vocal critics of government intervention in business. Why did Lee Iacocca stand before Congress, cap in hand, asking for loan guarantees? He did this because he understood the law of sacrifice.

19. LAW OF TIMELINESS. Knowing when to lead is just as important as knowing what to do and where to go.

He secured his election to the presidency of the United States. It also cost him the presidency. What it is? Sometimes it can stand between you and your ability to be an effective leader. It is called the law of timing.

20. LAW OF SPEAKING GROWTH. To simply increase growth, lead followers; to multiply it, lead leaders.

How can a person in a developing country take his organization from 700 people to more than 14,000 in just seven years? He managed to do this using the leader's special mathematics. This is the secret of the law of leap growth.

21. LAW OF HERITAGE. The enduring value of a leader is measured by continuity.

Many companies, having lost their top officials, go into a tailspin. But when Roberto Goizueta died, Coca Cola didn't even flinch. Why? Before his death, Goizueta lived according to the law of inheritance.